| South Carolina Education Directory | |
    |
Click Here to See More
|
 | |
| South Carolina Education Directory | |
|
Click Here to See More
|
| |
Using Rubrics to Teach and Assess
When my now twenty-four-year-old daughter was three, a man knocked on my door with a question: "Do you have a little girl with red hair?" He had found a small child wandering down the street and he wondered if she belonged to me. I paused to think a minute. Yes, by golly, I did have a little girl with red hair. Somehow, until that moment, I had never realized that Laurie's strawberry blonde locks could be characterized as red. Later, when I thought of the very red hair of the two children of a friend, I realized why I didn't think of Laurie's hair as red. In comparison to their bright locks, her hair was a dull color indeed. Still, her hair was definitely what some --including this man--would identify as red. I immediately laid claim to this child who had decided to go venturing from home without announcing to us her intentions.
This story may explain why, when Cheryl Beck asked me if I knew anything about rubrics, I immediately demurred, only to realize later that yes, I did; in fact, I used them frequently. There are times, as my mother would have put it, when I am slow on the uptake. When it dawned on me that of course I knew something about rubrics, I went to my computer and wrote Cheryl a three-page letter (single-spaced!) telling her what I knew (that I hadn't realized earlier) and included some handouts, examples culled from my file cabinet at school. Later, this letter developed into a presentation for a Florence District One in-service, then into a session at SCCTE's March 1997 conference, and lo, it now appears as this article that you are reading!
My announced ignorance of rubrics, even as I was a devoted user of them, is evidence that I eased into the use of rubrics without quite realizing what I was doing. As a teaching assistant at the University of South Carolina back in the 70's, I had used a textbook by Frank J. D'Angelo, Process and Thought in Composition, outlining basic characteristics of different essay assignments and offering, via the book liner, an overall set of guidelines for students to use in determining what they had achieved in a particular writing assignment. I found these guidelines useful and often turned to them even after I no longer used his textbook.
However, trying to teach outlining to high school juniors made me see more clearly the virtues of such guidelines. When I taught college students I allowed them to outline or not, as they saw fit, but in Florence District One, where I taught for nine years before moving to Greenwood, the traditional outline was a required feature of the term papers for both juniors and seniors. On first teaching outlining, I explained to my students as well as I could the ups and downs, the ins and outs of writing an outline--and of course got absolutely horrendous results. My impulse was to put F on every one. Finally, I developed a list of the various points that seemed to me important to remember when writing an outline, and I ascribed each one a point value. This systematic list helped students to deal with the assignment more easily, saved the wear and tear on my teeth since I gritted them far less while grading, and overall improved both grades and the outlines to which the grades were awarded. (See figure 1). Though I did not realize that my "grading sheet" (as I called it) was a set of rubrics, rubrics saved the day. Recognizing that structured expectations in the form of rubrics made life easier for both my students and for me, I went on to use them more frequently in various writing and speaking assignments.
Outline Grading Sheet
Each item counts 10 points unless otherwise indicated.
- Was the outline handed in on the due date?
- Is the outline written in ink or typed? Is the handwriting neat and legible, or the typing carefully done?
- Does the outline have a title? Does a thesis statement precede the outline?
- Does the outline include at least two levels—that is, main headings and subheadings? Does it include at least three and not more than five main headings?
- Are all levels designated with the appropriate letter or number? Are they correctly indented?
- Has the writer been consistent in using either a sentence or a topic outline? Is the language used parallel in form?
- Is the first word in each heading and subheading capitalized, with other letters written correctly in lower case? Are all words spelled and capitalized correctly? Is punctuation correctly used?
- Is the outline organized so that the most important ideas are listed as main headings (I, II, III, etc.) and less important ideas as subheadings (A, B, C, etc.)? Does every I have a II, every A have a B, and so on?
- Will the outline provide a good framework on which to construct a term paper? (20 points)
"Rubric," which comes from a Latin word meaning "red," is a term we borrow from the church. In the liturgical churches where written prayer books and worship guides are used by the congregation, the person conducting a service, usually a priest, has his own special edition of the book, with instructions of what he is to do given to him in easy-to-spot red print. For the priest, rubrics comprise a guide for action. The term rubric has come to mean more generally a rule, a guideline, an authoritative direction. In teaching, it has come to name a standard by which a student-generated product, especially a piece of writing, is judged. We usually speak of rubrics in the plural, for we generally use a set of rubrics that work together both to help students meet the demands of a particular assignment and to guide the grading process.Figure 1. The outline grading sheet that put me on the road to rubrics. It begins with items that are most immediately evident and ends with points requiring careful analysis of the outline's contents. Normally, in setting up such a grading sheet, I allow as much space as I can between each item in order to provide room for notes to the student explaining a point loss. Items that are completely satisfactory can simply be checked. Some may argue that the items listed are not truly in balance even though all, except the last, are accorded ten points. Certainly, writing legibly in ink (item #2) requires less thinking than the subordination of ideas covered by item #9. However, this sort of weight ensures that students get some credit for at least minimal care with the assignment while at the same time reminding them of the need for higher order thinking skills.
In my use of rubrics, I have found a number of reasons why they work:
Like anything, rubrics have some liabilities. First of all, they must be planned ahead. When making an assignment, you must decide how it is to be graded. This is not to say that the assignment and rubrics must be given to the students hand in hand. Still, for rubrics to support your teaching, students need to know what they are before completing the assignment. However, the time spent in planning is compensated by time saved in grading, and in pain and agony experienced while students work toward completion of an assignment.
A second problem is that, once you have established your rubrics, you are obliged to stick by them. You may find problems emerging in the assignment you had not foreseen. While you are not obliged to ignore those problems in terms of comments you might make, you can't be influenced by those problems in awarding grades. Rubrics, in effect, are a contract whereby a grade is awarded for clearly delineated effort. Careful design of rubrics, then, becomes very important.
Rubrics may focus on different aspects of an assignment—and the teacher has to determine what aspects are to be considered. There are four main areas that rubrics can cover: surface features, compositional features, process features, and content.
Surface features include things like writing legibly, spelling correctly, punctuating bibliographical citations according to conventions, and may even incorporate the teacher's own special quirks. My students think I am very peculiar because I require that their essay and research papers not have a cover, but I have found that covers add weight, give me one more page to turn, and in the case of those obnoxious plastic things with the slippy-slidey holders, give me extra pain for no gain at all. I am also very insistent that the staple be only in the upper left corner—not on the right and not down the side. Including requirements like these in my rubrics makes it more likely that I'll get what I want , and for me, these are items that ease the grading process. As I mentioned earlier, rubrics help students give attention to detail—and I'm clearly in favor of those details that make the paper load easier to handle.
With compositional features, of course, students show that they have gotten down to the really serious business of creating an acceptable product. Is the essay organized? Has adequate support for assertions been provided? Are effective transitions used throughout? Here is where the teacher can cover the points that are specific to the particular assignment. If the assignment is for a newspaper story, has the student written an effective lead that will grab the reader? If the assignment is for a narrative, has the student used verbs that create clear mental images of the actions involved? If the assignment is to be directed toward a particular audience, has the student chosen words that are appropriate for that audience?
Process features deal with what the student has done to produce the product and can include evidence of prewriting, peer review, teacher consultation, various drafting stages and the like (See Figure 2.)
|
Character Analysis Essay—Process Checklist |
||
YES | NOT YET |
|
| 1. I have decided which character from The Crucible I will analyze. | ||
| 2. I have listed things that character said and did and decided what qualities they demonstrate. | ||
| 3. I have developed a thesis that establishes that character's importance in the play. | ||
| 4. I have written a rough draft that introduces my thesis, supports it, and brings my ideas to a conclusion. | ||
5. I have revised the draft at least once, principally by (Check all that apply)____adding |
||
| 5. I have had a peer read my rough draft and complete a review sheet. | ||
| 6. I have had a conference with my teacher. | ||
| 7. I have completed the final draft of my essay, taking into account suggestions and showing the source of all quotations used as support. | ||
| 8. I have attached the final draft to the top of the rough draft with this sheet on the bottom. | ||
| 9. I have handed in the completed assignment on the date due. | ||
Figure 2. Guidelines to help the student follow the required writing process. The use of "not yet" suggests that the student may yet consider going back to an omitted step.
More than any other aspect, content features vary according to the assignment and are probably the least used in English classrooms, but for some assignments they work very well. Last year, inspired by what students in another school had done, I required my tenth graders to create a poster and a classroom presentation based on research on an endangered animal. They were required to include a map and a picture on their posters, and to cover information about the animal's appearance, habitat, reproductive habits, eating habits, and social behaviors, and the reasons for its endangerment. All of these were included in my set of rubrics for the assignment.
A set of rubrics may treat all four of these areas—surface features, compositional features, process features, and content—or only one of them. The teacher may also include multiple sets of rubrics for any one assignment, with each set focusing on only one area. For research reports, for example, I often provide one set of rubrics for surface features (which I label "Format") and another set of rubrics for compositional features (which I label "Writing"). Two sets of ten items each are easier both for students and for me than a long list of twenty, especially since each list represents a different way of looking at and thinking about a written product.
Rubrics can also be either analytical or holistic. Analytical rubrics break assignment expectations into different items, usually with points allocated to each item. These items may be evaluated according to a scale, as in Figure 3.
1. Audibility and clarity of voice EXCELLENT ADEQUATE WEAK NONEXISTENT 2. Eye contact with audience EXCELLENT ADEQUATE WEAK
NONEXISTENT 3. Organization and development EXCELLENT ADEQUATE WEAK NONEXISTENt 4. Length of speech EXCELLENT ADEQUATE WEAK NONEXISTENT
Figure 3. Analytic scoring for a speech assignment using a scale. Point values could be accorded to each item in the scale in order to facilitate the scoring process. Rubrics for speaking assignments need to be simpler than those for writing assignments because speaking assignments require that both students and teachers function in the moment, the students in speaking and the teacher in grading. There is no opportunity for reflection and revision on the part of either once the process has begun.Holistic rubrics describe overall standards for an assignment that fall within a particular range, for example, describing the characteristics of a persuasive speech meriting an A, a B, a C, and so on. (See Figure 4.)
In composing rubrics, the teacher has to struggle with the demands of keeping them both short and simple, yet thorough and complete. They are a good lesson in writing tightly. You want to include exactly what you need—but not an item more. Usually, what can go on one page is enough for a set of rubrics.
The teacher also has to consider how best to order items within a rubric. I have found that it makes sense to move from broadest to narrowest. For example, I may start with purpose, since purpose guides everything that goes into an essay, and end with proofreading details, because they are a final consideration. However, other logic occasionally guides me. I may start with what is noticed first as the essay is considered. In such a case, the first item may be whether or not the assignment was handed in on time because that is the item that is most immediately apparent. Whatever the logic, some sort of ordering process needs to govern.
I most often put items in a rubric in the form of a question because I want the student to get in the habit of questioning him or herself about what's been done. However, many teachers use statements. These speech assignment rubrics represent three different styles of composition:
Persuasion Speech
____You spoke in a voice that was clear and loud enough for everyone to hear
____You maintained good eye contact with your audience
____You organized and developed your topic in a forceful manner
____You made good use of the time allotted without going beyond it.
____You could be heard and understood most of the time
____You made frequent though not constant eye contact with your audience
____You organized and developed your topic to some extent
____Your speech was either just short of the required time limit or just over it.
____You were difficult for some people to hear
____You kept your eyes on your notes more than on your audience
____You got off your subject at times and/or failed to say enough to develop it.
____Your speech was too short or too long.
____You mumbled in such a way that hardly anyone could understand you.
____You seldom looked your audience in the eye.
____You failed to organize and develop your topic.
____Your speech was much too short or too long.
____You made no attempt at all to make a speech
Figure 4. Holistic scoring for a speech assignment. Note that the same points are covered as in Figure 3, but style and format are different. One teacher uses such a rubric and grades the student according to the lowest slot in which the student receives a check. For example, if the student has three checks under A and one under B, the student's grade is B.
It is important to me that items within a set of rubrics are consistent in style, though I am not really persuaded that this makes any difference in the way rurics are interpreted by students. Still, I want to model good writing principles for my students, and I want to be able to take pride in what I have done.
Just as rubrics need to fit the particular assignment, they need to fit the set of students. I know that when my students must give speeches, many of them are reluctant to do so. Getting them out of their seats can be a painful process. Including a rubric stating that the student goes willingly to the front of the room when called on helps to speed the transition from one speech to another. There is instructional value as well, for it also teaches students that they need to set the stage for the speech that they are to give, and that a display of enthusiasm for the task may help their audience to be more receptive to their message.
Rubrics in the form of self-rating sheets are helpful for some types of assignments. For example, with Tech Prep classes, I have tried to bring in speakers who can enlarge what my students know about different jobs. I want my students to develop patience with speakers who are good at their jobs but who may be unpracticed at speaking and, especially, unfamiliar with the demand of speaking to a high school audience. I also want them to create a positive impression on the various speakers who come to our school. In order to encourage my students to provide these speakers with a good audience, I give them a grade based on a self-rating sheet. They score themselves on such things as coming into the room in a quiet and orderly manner, sitting up straight, maintaining eye contact with the speaker, and refraining from talking. I usually offer bonus points if they have a question for the speaker, assuring them that this gives evidence to the speaker that they listened and cared about what the speaker said. During the presentation, I may take notes of lapses so that I can base their grade both on their self-evaluation and actual evidence of meeting requirements. These self-rating sheets have saved me lots of embarrassment and made students more conscious of behavioral expectations.
From what I have said, it may seem that rubrics are completely a product of the teacher, but they may be created by the student as well. In making an assignment, I have often asked students to tell me what I ought to look for. They brainstorm ideas that I write down on the overhead and ultimately I use these as I compose the rubrics. Student-generated rubrics tell you what students know, and they help students learn from each other. Students take ownership of rubrics when they have had a hand in writing them. Because these rubrics are more valuable than those generated by the teacher alone, going through this process any time you compose a set of rubrics ought to be considered.
One area of difficulty for me in teaching composition is putting blinders on to ignore some writing problems in order to focus on those of greater concern. I now plan to use rubrics to achieve that, to make myself pay attention to certain features of development more important (for the student and for the assignment) than others. Rubrics are useful in helping my students give attention to detail, but when I use them for primary trait scoring, they ought to be useful in making me forget details that are of lesser importance. I am a nit-picky English teacher and rubrics help me enforce my nit-picking; it will be interesting to see if they can also help me control it.
When Cheryl asked me what I knew about rubrics, her school was considering the possibility of generating a set of rubrics that would govern all writing assignments. I am dubious about whether or not such rubrics are feasible. I think it's important for teachers within a school to set objectives that they work toward, but one-size-fits-all rubrics probably work no better than one-size-fits-all pantyhose. There are more writing situations and more kinds of writers than can be reliably accommodated by a single set of rubrics. In any case, the more valuable rubrics are those generated for the particular students and the particular assignment.
Despite my Butterfly McQueen response to Cheryl's question—"I don't know nothing about rubrics"—I am very glad she asked it. She made me aware of what I do know and more determined to use rubrics consistently. Rubrics are a valuable tool in grading, but even more valuable in guiding students toward good work.
After living in Florence for sixteen years, where she taught at Florence-Darlington Technical College and Wilson High School, Holly Westcott has recently moved to Greenwood, where she teaches English at Greenwood High. With her husband Warren, who is chair of the Humanities Division at Lander University, she edits Carolina English Teacher. Warren and Holly began work with the journal in the late 70s and have served as co-editors since 1982.